int a; // defines a extern const int c = 1; // defines c int f(int x) { return x+a; } // defines f and defines x struct S { int a; int b; }; // defines S, S::a, and S::b struct X { // defines X int x; // defines non-static data member x static int y; // declares static data member y X(): x(0) { } // defines a constructor of X }; int X::y = 1; // defines X::y enum { up, down }; // defines up and down namespace N { int d; } // defines N and N::d namespace N1 = N; // defines N1 X anX; // defines anXwhereas these are just declarations:
extern int a; // declares a extern const int c; // declares c int f(int); // declares f struct S; // declares S typedef int Int; // declares Int extern X anotherX; // declares anotherX using N::d; // declares d
#include <string>
struct C {
std::string s; // std::string is the standard library class (Clause [strings])
};
int main() {
C a;
C b = a;
b = a;
}
struct C {
std::string s;
C() : s() { }
C(const C& x): s(x.s) { }
C(C&& x): s(static_cast<std::string&&>(x.s)) { }
// : s(std::move(x.s)) { }
C& operator=(const C& x) { s = x.s; return *this; }
C& operator=(C&& x) { s = static_cast<std::string&&>(x.s); return *this; }
// { s = std::move(x.s); return *this; }
~C() { }
};
struct S { static const int x = 0; };
const int &f(const int &r);
int n = b ? (1, S::x) // S::x is not odr-used here
: f(S::x); // S::x is odr-used here, so a definition is required
struct X; // declare X as a struct type struct X* x1; // use X in pointer formation X* x2; // use X in pointer formation
// translation unit 1: struct X { X(int, int); X(int, int, int); }; X::X(int, int = 0) { } class D { X x = 0; }; D d1; // X(int, int) called by D() // translation unit 2: struct X { X(int, int); X(int, int, int); }; X::X(int, int = 0, int = 0) { } class D { X x = 0; }; D d2; // X(int, int, int) called by D(); // D()'s implicit definition violates the ODR
int j = 24;
int main() {
int i = j, j;
j = 42;
}class-key attribute-specifier-seq identifier ;the identifier is declared to be a class-name in the scope that contains the declaration, otherwise
class-key identifierif the elaborated-type-specifier is used in the decl-specifier-seq or parameter-declaration-clause of a function defined in namespace scope, the identifier is declared as a class-name in the namespace that contains the declaration; otherwise, except as a friend declaration, the identifier is declared in the smallest namespace or block scope that contains the declaration.
typedef unsigned char T; template<class T = T // lookup finds the typedef name of unsigned char , T // lookup finds the template parameter N = 0> struct A { };
namespace N {
int i;
int g(int a) { return a; }
int j();
void q();
}
namespace { int l=1; }
// the potential scope of l is from its point of declaration to the end of the translation unit
namespace N {
int g(char a) { // overloads N::g(int)
return l+a; // l is from unnamed namespace
}
int i; // error: duplicate definition
int j(); // OK: duplicate function declaration
int j() { // OK: definition of N::j()
return g(i); // calls N::g(int)
}
int q(); // error: different return type
}
typedef int c;
enum { i = 1 };
class X {
char v[i]; // error: i refers to ::i but when reevaluated is X::i
int f() { return sizeof(c); } // OK: X::c
char c;
enum { i = 2 };
};
typedef char* T;
struct Y {
T a; // error: T refers to ::T but when reevaluated is Y::T
typedef long T;
T b;
};
typedef int I;
class D {
typedef I I; // error, even though no reordering involved
};
namespace N {
template<class T> struct A { }; // #1
template<class U> void f(U) { } // #2
struct B {
template<class V> friend int g(struct C*); // #3
};
}
template<class T, T* p, class U = T> class X { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void f(T* p = new T);
template<class T> class X : public Array<T> { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class Y : public T { /* ... */ };
typedef int f;
namespace N {
struct A {
friend void f(A &);
operator int();
void g(A a) {
int i = f(a); // f is the typedef, not the friend function: equivalent to int(a)
}
};
}
namespace A {
namespace N {
void f();
}
}
void A::N::f() {
i = 5;
// The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
// 1) outermost block scope of A::N::f, before the use of i
// 2) scope of namespace N
// 3) scope of namespace A
// 4) global scope, before the definition of A::N::f
}
namespace M {
class B { };
}
namespace N {
class Y : public M::B {
class X {
int a[i];
};
};
}
// The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
// 1) scope of class N::Y::X, before the use of i
// 2) scope of class N::Y, before the definition of N::Y::X
// 3) scope of N::Y's base class M::B
// 4) scope of namespace N, before the definition of N::Y
// 5) global scope, before the definition of N
class B { };
namespace M {
namespace N {
class X : public B {
void f();
};
}
}
void M::N::X::f() {
i = 16;
}
// The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
// 1) outermost block scope of M::N::X::f, before the use of i
// 2) scope of class M::N::X
// 3) scope of M::N::X's base class B
// 4) scope of namespace M::N
// 5) scope of namespace M
// 6) global scope, before the definition of M::N::X::f
struct A {
typedef int AT;
void f1(AT);
void f2(float);
template <class T> void f3();
};
struct B {
typedef char AT;
typedef float BT;
friend void A::f1(AT); // parameter type is A::AT
friend void A::f2(BT); // parameter type is B::BT
friend void A::f3<AT>(); // template argument is B::AT
};
namespace N {
int i = 4;
extern int j;
}
int i = 2;
int N::j = i; // N::j == 4
namespace N {
struct S { };
void f(S);
}
void g() {
N::S s;
f(s); // OK: calls N::f
(f)(s); // error: N::f not considered; parentheses prevent argument-dependent lookup
}
namespace NS {
class T { };
void f(T);
void g(T, int);
}
NS::T parm;
void g(NS::T, float);
int main() {
f(parm); // OK: calls NS::f
extern void g(NS::T, float);
g(parm, 1); // OK: calls g(NS::T, float)
}
class A {
public:
static int n;
};
int main() {
int A;
A::n = 42; // OK
A b; // ill-formed: A does not name a type
}
class X { };
class C {
class X { };
static const int number = 50;
static X arr[number];
};
X C::arr[number]; // ill-formed:
// equivalent to ::X C::arr[C::number];
// and not to C::X C::arr[C::number];
nested-name-specifier class-name :: ~ class-namethe second class-name is looked up in the same scope as the first.
struct C {
typedef int I;
};
typedef int I1, I2;
extern int* p;
extern int* q;
p->C::I::~I(); // I is looked up in the scope of C
q->I1::~I2(); // I2 is looked up in the scope of the postfix-expression
struct A {
~A();
};
typedef A AB;
int main() {
AB* p;
p->AB::~AB(); // explicitly calls the destructor for A
}
struct A { A(); };
struct B: public A { B(); };
A::A() { }
B::B() { }
B::A ba; // object of type A
A::A a; // error, A::A is not a type name
struct A::A a2; // object of type A
int x;
namespace Y {
void f(float);
void h(int);
}
namespace Z {
void h(double);
}
namespace A {
using namespace Y;
void f(int);
void g(int);
int i;
}
namespace B {
using namespace Z;
void f(char);
int i;
}
namespace AB {
using namespace A;
using namespace B;
void g();
}
void h()
{
AB::g(); // g is declared directly in AB, therefore S is { AB::g() } and AB::g() is chosen
AB::f(1); // f is not declared directly in AB so the rules are applied recursively to A and B;
// namespace Y is not searched and Y::f(float) is not considered;
// S is and overload resolution chooses A::f(int)
AB::f('c'); // as above but resolution chooses B::f(char)
AB::x++; // x is not declared directly in AB, and is not declared in A or B, so the rules
// are applied recursively to Y and Z, S is { } so the program is ill-formed
AB::i++; // i is not declared directly in AB so the rules are applied recursively to A and B,
// S is so the use is ambiguous and the program is ill-formed
AB::h(16.8); // h is not declared directly in AB and not declared directly in A or B so the rules
// are applied recursively to Y and Z, S is and
// overload resolution chooses Z::h(double)
}
namespace A {
int a;
}
namespace B {
using namespace A;
}
namespace C {
using namespace A;
}
namespace BC {
using namespace B;
using namespace C;
}
void f()
{
BC::a++; // OK: S is
}
namespace D {
using A::a;
}
namespace BD {
using namespace B;
using namespace D;
}
void g()
{
BD::a++; // OK: S is
}
namespace B {
int b;
}
namespace A {
using namespace B;
int a;
}
namespace B {
using namespace A;
}
void f()
{
A::a++; // OK: a declared directly in A, S is { A::a }
B::a++; // OK: both A and B searched (once), S is { A::a }
A::b++; // OK: both A and B searched (once), S is { B::b }
B::b++; // OK: b declared directly in B, S is { B::b }
}
namespace A {
struct x { };
int x;
int y;
}
namespace B {
struct y { };
}
namespace C {
using namespace A;
using namespace B;
int i = C::x; // OK, A::x (of type int)
int j = C::y; // ambiguous, A::y or B::y
}nested-name-specifier unqualified-idthe unqualified-id shall name a member of the namespace designated by the nested-name-specifier or of an element of the inline namespace set ([namespace.def]) of that namespace.
namespace A {
namespace B {
void f1(int);
}
using namespace B;
}
void A::f1(int){ } // ill-formed, f1 is not a member of A
namespace A {
namespace B {
void f1(int);
}
}
namespace C {
namespace D {
void f1(int);
}
}
using namespace A;
using namespace C::D;
void B::f1(int){ } // OK, defines A::B::f1(int)
class-key attribute-specifier-seq identifier ;the identifier is looked up according to [basic.lookup.unqual] but ignoring any non-type names that have been declared.
class-key attribute-specifier-seq identifier ;the elaborated-type-specifier is a declaration that introduces the class-name as described in [basic.scope.pdecl].
struct Node {
struct Node* Next; // OK: Refers to Node at global scope
struct Data* Data; // OK: Declares type Data
// at global scope and member Data
};
struct Data {
struct Node* Node; // OK: Refers to Node at global scope
friend struct ::Glob; // error: Glob is not declared, cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
friend struct Glob; // OK: Refers to (as yet) undeclared Glob at global scope.
/* ... */
};
struct Base {
struct Data; // OK: Declares nested Data
struct ::Data* thatData; // OK: Refers to ::Data
struct Base::Data* thisData; // OK: Refers to nested Data
friend class ::Data; // OK: global Data is a friend
friend class Data; // OK: nested Data is a friend
struct Data { /* ... */ }; // Defines nested Data
};
struct Data; // OK: Redeclares Data at global scope
struct ::Data; // error: cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
struct Base::Data; // error: cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
struct Base::Datum; // error: Datum undefined
struct Base::Data* pBase; // OK: refers to nested Data
struct A { };
struct B {
struct A { };
void f(::A* a);
};
void B::f(::A* a) {
a->~A(); // OK: lookup in *a finds the injected-class-name
}class-name-or-namespace-name::...the class-name-or-namespace-name following the . or -> operator is first looked up in the class of the object expression and the name, if found, is used.
::class-name-or-namespace-name::...the class-name-or-namespace-name is looked up in global scope as a class-name or namespace-name.
struct A { };
namespace N {
struct A {
void g() { }
template <class T> operator T();
};
}
int main() {
N::A a;
a.operator A(); // calls N::A::operator N::A
}static void f(); static int i = 0; // #1 void g() { extern void f(); // internal linkage int i; // #2: i has no linkage { extern void f(); // internal linkage extern int i; // #3: external linkage, ill-formed } }
namespace X {
void p() {
q(); // error: q not yet declared
extern void q(); // q is a member of namespace X
}
void middle() {
q(); // error: q not yet declared
}
void q() { /* ... */ } // definition of X::q
}
void q() { /* ... */ } // some other, unrelated q
template <class T> struct B {
void g(T) { }
void h(T);
friend void i(B, T) { }
};
void f() {
struct A { int x; }; // no linkage
A a = { 1 };
B<A> ba; // declares B<A>::g(A) and B<A>::h(A)
ba.g(a); // OK
ba.h(a); // error: B<A>::h(A) not defined in the translation unit
i(ba, a); // OK
}
inline double fd() { return 1.0; }
extern double d1;
double d2 = d1; // unspecified:
// may be statically initialized to 0.0 or
// dynamically initialized to 0.0 if d1 is
// dynamically initialized, or 1.0 otherwise
double d1 = fd(); // may be initialized statically or dynamically to 1.0
// - File 1 - #include "a.h" #include "b.h" B b; A::A(){ b.Use(); } // - File 2 - #include "a.h" A a; // - File 3 - #include "a.h" #include "b.h" extern A a; extern B b; int main() { a.Use(); b.Use(); }
void* operator new(std::size_t); void* operator new(std::size_t, std::align_val_t); void operator delete(void*) noexcept; void operator delete(void*, std::size_t) noexcept; void operator delete(void*, std::align_val_t) noexcept; void operator delete(void*, std::size_t, std::align_val_t) noexcept; void* operator new[](std::size_t); void* operator new[](std::size_t, std::align_val_t); void operator delete[](void*) noexcept; void operator delete[](void*, std::size_t) noexcept; void operator delete[](void*, std::align_val_t) noexcept; void operator delete[](void*, std::size_t, std::align_val_t) noexcept;
#include <cstdlib>
struct B {
virtual void f();
void mutate();
virtual ~B();
};
struct D1 : B { void f(); };
struct D2 : B { void f(); };
void B::mutate() {
new (this) D2; // reuses storage — ends the lifetime of *this
f(); // undefined behavior
... = this; // OK, this points to valid memory
}
void g() {
void* p = std::malloc(sizeof(D1) + sizeof(D2));
B* pb = new (p) D1;
pb->mutate();
*pb; // OK: pb points to valid memory
void* q = pb; // OK: pb points to valid memory
pb->f(); // undefined behavior, lifetime of *pb has ended
}
struct C {
int i;
void f();
const C& operator=( const C& );
};
const C& C::operator=( const C& other) {
if ( this != &other ) {
this->~C(); // lifetime of *this ends
new (this) C(other); // new object of type C created
f(); // well-defined
}
return *this;
}
C c1;
C c2;
c1 = c2; // well-defined
c1.f(); // well-defined; c1 refers to a new object of type C
class T { };
struct B {
~B();
};
void h() {
B b;
new (&b) T;
} // undefined behavior at block exit
struct B {
B();
~B();
};
const B b;
void h() {
b.~B();
new (const_cast<B*>(&b)) const B; // undefined behavior
}#define N sizeof(T) char buf[N]; T obj; // obj initialized to its original value std::memcpy(buf, &obj, N); // between these two calls to std::memcpy, obj might be modified std::memcpy(&obj, buf, N); // at this point, each subobject of obj of scalar type holds its original value
T* t1p;
T* t2p;
// provided that t2p points to an initialized object ...
std::memcpy(t1p, t2p, sizeof(T));
// at this point, every subobject of trivially copyable type in *t1p contains
// the same value as the corresponding subobject in *t2p
class X; // X is an incomplete type extern X* xp; // xp is a pointer to an incomplete type extern int arr[]; // the type of arr is incomplete typedef int UNKA[]; // UNKA is an incomplete type UNKA* arrp; // arrp is a pointer to an incomplete type UNKA** arrpp; void foo() { xp++; // ill-formed: X is incomplete arrp++; // ill-formed: incomplete type arrpp++; // OK: sizeof UNKA* is known } struct X { int i; }; // now X is a complete type int arr[10]; // now the type of arr is complete X x; void bar() { xp = &x; // OK; type is “pointer to X” arrp = &arr; // ill-formed: different types xp++; // OK: X is complete arrp++; // ill-formed: UNKA can't be completed }
no cv-qualifier | < | const |
no cv-qualifier | < | volatile |
no cv-qualifier | < | const volatile |
const | < | const volatile |
volatile | < | const volatile |
struct B { long double d; };
struct D : virtual B { char c; };