17 Templates [temp]

template <class T> class X { };
template <class T> void f(T t) { }
struct { } unnamed_obj;

void f() {
  struct A { };
  enum { e1 };
  typedef struct { } B;
  B b;
  X<A> x1;          // OK
  X<A*> x2;         // OK
  X<B> x3;          // OK
  f(e1);            // OK
  f(unnamed_obj);   // OK
  f(b);             // OK
}

template<const int* pci> struct X { /* ... */ };
int ai[10];
X<ai> xi;                       // array to pointer and qualification conversions

struct Y { /* ... */ };
template<const Y& b> struct Z { /* ... */ };
Y y;
Z<y> z;                         // no conversion, but note extra cv-qualification

template<int (&pa)[5]> struct W { /* ... */ };
int b[5];
W<b> w;                         // no conversion

void f(char);
void f(int);

template<void (*pf)(int)> struct A { /* ... */ };

A<&f> a;                        // selects f(int)

template<auto n> struct B { /* ... */ };
B<5> b1;                        // OK: template parameter type is int
B<'a'> b2;                      // OK: template parameter type is char
B<2.5> b3;                      // error: template parameter type cannot be double

template<class T> class A {     // primary template
  int x;
};
template<class T> class A<T*> { // partial specialization
  long x;
};
template<template<class U> class V> class C {
  V<int>  y;
  V<int*> z;
};
C<A> c;             // V<int> within C<A> uses the primary template, so c.y.x has type int
                    // V<int*> within C<A> uses the partial specialization, so c.z.x has type long

template<class T> class A { /* ... */ };
template<class T, class U = T> class B { /* ... */ };
template<class ... Types> class C { /* ... */ };
template<auto n> class D { /* ... */ };
template<template<class> class P> class X { /* ... */ };
template<template<class ...> class Q> class Y { /* ... */ };
template<template<int> class R> class Z { /* ... */ };

X<A> xa;            // OK
X<B> xb;            // OK
X<C> xc;            // OK
Y<A> ya;            // OK
Y<B> yb;            // OK
Y<C> yc;            // OK
Z<D> zd;            // OK

template <class T> struct eval;

template <template <class, class...> class TT, class T1, class... Rest>
struct eval<TT<T1, Rest...>> { };

template <class T1> struct A;
template <class T1, class T2> struct B;
template <int N> struct C;
template <class T1, int N> struct D;
template <class T1, class T2, int N = 17> struct E;

eval<A<int>> eA;                // OK: matches partial specialization of eval
eval<B<int, float>> eB;         // OK: matches partial specialization of eval
eval<C<17>> eC;                 // error: C does not match TT in partial specialization
eval<D<int, 17>> eD;            // error: D does not match TT in partial specialization
eval<E<int, float>> eE;         // error: E does not match TT in partial specialization

template<class T> class Array {
  T* v;
  int sz;
public:
  explicit Array(int);
  T& operator[](int);
  T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; }
};

template<class T1, class T2> struct A {
  void f1();
  void f2();
};

template<class T2, class T1> void A<T2,T1>::f1() { }    // OK
template<class T2, class T1> void A<T1,T2>::f2() { }    // error

template<class ... Types> struct B {
  void f3();
  void f4();
};

template<class ... Types> void B<Types ...>::f3() { }    // OK
template<class ... Types> void B<Types>::f4() { }        // error

template<class T> struct string {
  template<class T2> int compare(const T2&);
  template<class T2> string(const string<T2>& s) { /* ... */ }
};

template<class T> template<class T2> int string<T>::compare(const T2& s) {
}

template <class T> struct A {
  void f(int);
  template <class T2> void f(T2);
};

template <> void A<int>::f(int) { }                 // non-template member function
template <> template <> void A<int>::f<>(int) { }   // member function template specialization

int main() {
  A<char> ac;
  ac.f(1);          // non-template
  ac.f('c');        // template
  ac.f<>(1);        // template
}

template <class T> struct AA {
  template <class C> virtual void g(C);     // error
  virtual void f();                         // OK
};

class B {
  virtual void f(int);
};

class D : public B {
  template <class T> void f(T); // does not override B​::​f(int)
  void f(int i) { f<>(i); }     // overriding function that calls the template instantiation
};

struct A {
  template <class T> operator T*();
};
template <class T> A::operator T*(){ return 0; }
template <> A::operator char*(){ return 0; }    // specialization
template A::operator void*();                   // explicit instantiation

int main() {
  A a;
  int* ip;
  ip = a.operator int*();       // explicit call to template operator A​::​operator int*()
}

template<class ... Types> struct Tuple { };

Tuple<> t0;                     // Types contains no arguments
Tuple<int> t1;                  // Types contains one argument: int
Tuple<int, float> t2;           // Types contains two arguments: int and float
Tuple<0> error;                 // error: 0 is not a type

template<class ... Types> void f(Types ... args);

f();                            // OK: args contains no arguments
f(1);                           // OK: args contains one argument: int
f(2, 1.0);                      // OK: args contains two arguments: int and double

template<class ... Types> void f(Types ... rest);
template<class ... Types> void g(Types ... rest) {
  f(&rest ...);     // “&rest ...” is a pack expansion; “&rest” is its pattern
}

template<typename...> struct Tuple {};
template<typename T1, typename T2> struct Pair {};

template<class ... Args1> struct zip {
  template<class ... Args2> struct with {
    typedef Tuple<Pair<Args1, Args2> ... > type;
  };
};

typedef zip<short, int>::with<unsigned short, unsigned>::type T1;
    // T1 is Tuple<Pair<short, unsigned short>, Pair<int, unsigned>>
typedef zip<short>::with<unsigned short, unsigned>::type T2;
    // error: different number of arguments specified for Args1 and Args2

template<class ... Args>
  void g(Args ... args) {                   // OK: Args is expanded by the function parameter pack args
    f(const_cast<const Args*>(&args)...);   // OK: “Args” and “args” are expanded
    f(5 ...);                               // error: pattern does not contain any parameter packs
    f(args);                                // error: parameter pack “args” is not expanded
    f(h(args ...) + args ...);              // OK: first “args” expanded within h,
                                            // second “args” expanded within f
  }

template<class... T> struct X : T... { };
template<class... T> void f(T... values) {
  X<T...> x(values...);
}

template void f<>();    // OK: X<> has no base classes
                        // x is a variable of type X<> that is value-initialized

template<typename ...Args>
  bool all(Args ...args) { return (... && args); }

bool b = all(true, true, true, false);

template<class T> class task;
template<class T> task<T>* preempt(task<T>*);

template<class T> class task {
  friend void next_time();
  friend void process(task<T>*);
  friend task<T>* preempt<T>(task<T>*);
  template<class C> friend int func(C);

  friend class task<int>;
  template<class P> friend class frd;
};

class A {
  template<class T> friend class B;                 // OK
  template<class T> friend void f(T){ /* ... */ }   // OK
};

class X {
  template<class T> friend struct A;
  class Y { };
};

template<class T> struct A { X::Y ab; };            // OK
template<class T> struct A<T*> { X::Y ab; };        // OK

template<class T> struct A {
  struct B { };
  void f();
  struct D {
    void g();
  };
};
template<> struct A<int> {
  struct B { };
  int f();
  struct D {
    void g();
  };
};

class C {
  template<class T> friend struct A<T>::B;      // grants friendship to A<int>​::​B even though
                                                // it is not a specialization of A<T>​::​B
  template<class T> friend void A<T>::f();      // does not grant friendship to A<int>​::​f()
                                                // because its return type does not match
  template<class T> friend void A<T>::D::g();   // does not grant friendship to A<int>​::​D​::​g()
                                                // because A<int>​::​D is not a specialization of A<T>​::​D
};

template<class T> class A { };
class X {
  template<class T> friend class A<T*>;         // error
};

template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A             { };
template<class T, int I>            class A<T, T*, I>   { };
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1*, T2, I> { };
template<class T>                   class A<int, T*, 5> { };
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2*, I> { };

template<class T> struct A {
  struct C {
    template<class T2> struct B { };
    template<class T2> struct B<T2**> { };      // partial specialization #1
  };
};

// partial specialization of A<T>​::​C​::​B<T2>
template<class T> template<class T2>
  struct A<T>::C::B<T2*> { };                   // #2

A<short>::C::B<int*> absip;                     // uses partial specialization #2

namespace N {
  template<class T1, class T2> class A { };     // primary template
}

using N::A;                                     // refers to the primary template

namespace N {
  template<class T> class A<T, T*> { };         // partial specialization
}

A<int,int*> a;      // uses the partial specialization, which is found through the using-declaration
                    // which refers to the primary template

template<class T> class Array { };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>&);

template<class T> struct Alloc { /* ... */ };
template<class T> using Vec = vector<T, Alloc<T>>;
Vec<int> v;         // same as vector<int, Alloc<int>> v;

template<class T>
  void process(Vec<T>& v)
  { /* ... */ }

template<class T>
  void process(vector<T, Alloc<T>>& w)
  { /* ... */ }     // error: redefinition

template<template<class> class TT>
  void f(TT<int>);

f(v);               // error: Vec not deduced

template<template<class,class> class TT>
  void g(TT<int, Alloc<int>>);
g(v);               // OK: TT = vector

template<typename...> using void_t = void;
template<typename T> void_t<typename T::foo> f();
f<int>();           // error, int does not have a nested type foo

template <class T> struct A;
template <class T> using B = typename A<T>::U;
template <class T> struct A {
  typedef B<T> U;
};
B<short> b;         // error: instantiation of B<short> uses own type via A<short>​::​U

template<template<class> class T> class A { };
template<class T> class Y;
template<> class Y<int> {
  Y* p;                               // meaning Y<int>
  Y<char>* q;                         // meaning Y<char>
  A<Y>* a;                            // meaning A<​::​Y>
  class B {
    template<class> friend class Y;   // meaning ​::​Y
  };
};

template <class T> struct Base {
  Base* p;
};

template <class T> struct Derived: public Base<T> {
  typename Derived::Base* p;    // meaning Derived​::​Base<T>
};

template<class T, template<class> class U = T::template Base> struct Third { };
Third<Base<int> > t;            // OK: default argument uses injected-class-name as a template

template <class T> struct Base { };
template <class T> struct Derived: Base<int>, Base<char> {
  typename Derived::Base b;             // error: ambiguous
  typename Derived::Base<double> d;     // OK
};

template<class T> class X {
  X* p;             // meaning X<T>
  X<T>* p2;
  X<int>* p3;
  ::X* p4;          // error: missing template argument list
                    // ​::​X does not refer to the injected-class-name
};

template<class T, int i> class Y {
  int T;            // error: template-parameter redeclared
  void f() {
    char T;         // error: template-parameter redeclared
  }
};

template<class X> class X;      // error: template-parameter redeclared

template<class T> struct A {
  struct B { /* ... */ };
  typedef void C;
  void f();
  template<class U> void g(U);
};

template<class B> void A<B>::f() {
  B b;              // A's B, not the template parameter
}

template<class B> template<class C> void A<B>::g(C) {
  B b;              // A's B, not the template parameter
  C c;              // the template parameter C, not A's C
}

namespace N {
  class C { };
  template<class T> class B {
    void f(T);
  };
}
template<class C> void N::B<C>::f(C) {
  C b;              // C is the template parameter, not N​::​C
}

struct A {
  struct B { /* ... */ };
  int a;
  int Y;
};

template<class B, class a> struct X : A {
  B b;              // A's B
  a b;              // error: A's a isn't a type name
};

template<class T> struct X : B<T> {
  typename T::A* pa;
  void f(B<T>* pb) {
    static int i = B<T>::i;
    pb->j++;
  }
};

typedef double A;
template<class T> class B {
  typedef int A;
};
template<class T> struct X : B<T> {
  A a;              // a has type double
};

struct A {
  struct B { /* ... */ };
  int a;
  int Y;
};

int a;

template<class T> struct Y : T {
  struct B { /* ... */ };
  B b;                          // The B defined in Y
  void f(int i) { a = i; }      // ​::​a
  Y* p;                         // Y<T>
};

Y<A> ya;

void g(double);
void h();

template<class T> class Z {
public:
  void f() {
    g(1);           // calls g(double)
    h++;            // ill-formed: cannot increment function; this could be diagnosed
                    // either here or at the point of instantiation
  }
};

void g(int);        // not in scope at the point of the template definition, not considered for the call g(1)

template<typename T> struct number {
  number(int);
  friend number gcd(number x, number y) { return 0; };
};

void g() {
  number<double> a(3), b(4);
  a = gcd(a,b);     // finds gcd because number<double> is an associated class,
                    // making gcd visible in its namespace (global scope)
  b = gcd(3,4);     // ill-formed; gcd is not visible
}

template<class T> class B { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class D : public B<T> { /* ... */ };

void f(void*);
void f(B<int>*);

void g(D<int>* p, D<char>* pp, D<double>* ppp) {
  f(p);             // instantiation of D<int> required: call f(B<int>*)
  B<char>* q = pp;  // instantiation of D<char> required: convert D<char>* to B<char>*
  delete ppp;       // instantiation of D<double> required
}

template<class T> class X;
X<char> ch;         // error: incomplete type X<char>

template<class T, class U>
struct Outer {
  template<class X, class Y> struct Inner;
  template<class Y> struct Inner<T, Y>;         // #1a
  template<class Y> struct Inner<T, Y> { };     // #1b; OK: valid redeclaration of #1a
  template<class Y> struct Inner<U, Y> { };     // #2
};

Outer<int, int> outer;                          // error at #2

template<typename T> struct Friendly {
  template<typename U> friend int f(U) { return sizeof(T); }
};
Friendly<char> fc;
Friendly<float> ff;                             // ill-formed: produces second definition of f(U)

template<class T> struct Z {
  void f();
  void g();
};

void h() {
  Z<int> a;         // instantiation of class Z<int> required
  Z<char>* p;       // instantiation of class Z<char> not required
  Z<double>* q;     // instantiation of class Z<double> not required

  a.f();            // instantiation of Z<int>​::​f() required
  p->g();           // instantiation of class Z<char> required, and
                    // instantiation of Z<char>​::​g() required
}

template <class T> struct S {
  operator int();
};

void f(int);
void f(S<int>&);
void f(S<float>);

void g(S<int>& sr) {
  f(sr);            // instantiation of S<int> allowed but not required
                    // instantiation of S<float> allowed but not required
};

namespace N {
  template<class T> class List {
  public:
    T* get();
  };
}

template<class K, class V> class Map {
public:
  N::List<V> lt;
  V get(K);
};

void g(Map<const char*,int>& m) {
  int i = m.get("Nicholas");
}

template<class T> void f(T x, T y = ydef(T()), T z = zdef(T()));

class  A { };

A zdef(A);

void g(A a, A b, A c) {
  f(a, b, c);       // no default argument instantiation
  f(a, b);          // default argument z = zdef(T()) instantiated
  f(a);             // ill-formed; ydef is not declared
}

template<class T> class X {
  X<T>* p;          // OK
  X<T*> a;          // implicit generation of X<T> requires
                    // the implicit instantiation of X<T*> which requires
                    // the implicit instantiation of X<T**> which …
};

template<class T> class Array { void mf(); };
template class Array<char>;
template void Array<int>::mf();

template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }
template void sort(Array<char>&);       // argument is deduced here

namespace N {
  template<class T> void f(T&) { }
}
template void N::f<int>(int&);

namespace N {
  template<class T> class Y { void mf() { } };
}

template class Y<int>;          // error: class template Y not visible in the global namespace

using N::Y;
template class Y<int>;          // error: explicit instantiation outside of the namespace of the template

template class N::Y<char*>;             // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N
template void N::Y<double>::mf();       // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

// instantiate sort(Array<int>&) – template-argument deduced
template void sort<>(Array<int>&);

char* p = 0;
template<class T> T g(T x = &p) { return x; }
template int g<int>(int);       // OK even though &p isn't an int.

template<class T> class stream;

template<> class stream<char> { /* ... */ };

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

template<> void sort<char*>(Array<char*>&);

template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ };          // error: X not a template

template<class T> class X;

template<> class X<char*> { /* ... */ };        // OK: X is a template

template<class T> struct A {
  struct B { };
  template<class U> struct C { };
};

template<> struct A<int> {
  void f(int);
};

void h() {
  A<int> a;
  a.f(16);          // A<int>​::​f must be defined somewhere
}

// template<> not used for a member of an explicitly specialized class template
void A<int>::f(int) { /* ... */ }

template<> struct A<char>::B {
  void f();
};
// template<> also not used when defining a member of an explicitly specialized member class
void A<char>::B::f() { /* ... */ }

template<> template<class U> struct A<char>::C {
  void f();
};
// template<> is used when defining a member of an explicitly specialized member class template
// specialized as a class template
template<>
template<class U> void A<char>::C<U>::f() { /* ... */ }

template<> struct A<short>::B {
  void f();
};
template<> void A<short>::B::f() { /* ... */ }              // error: template<> not permitted

template<> template<class U> struct A<short>::C {
  void f();
};
template<class U> void A<short>::C<U>::f() { /* ... */ }    // error: template<> required

class String { };
template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

void f(Array<String>& v) {
  sort(v);          // use primary template sort(Array<T>&), T is String
}

template<> void sort<String>(Array<String>& v);     // error: specialization after use of primary template
template<> void sort<>(Array<char*>& v);            // OK: sort<char*> not yet used
template<class T> struct A {
  enum E : T;
  enum class S : T;
};
template<> enum A<int>::E : int { eint };           // OK
template<> enum class A<int>::S : int { sint };     // OK
template<class T> enum A<T>::E : T { eT };
template<class T> enum class A<T>::S : T { sT };
template<> enum A<char>::E : char { echar };        // ill-formed, A<char>​::​E was instantiated
                                                    // when A<char> was instantiated
template<> enum class A<char>::S : char { schar };  // OK

namespace N {
  template<class T> class X { /* ... */ };
  template<class T> class Y { /* ... */ };

  template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ };        // OK: specialization in same namespace
  template<> class Y<double>;                   // forward-declare intent to specialize for double
}

template<> class N::Y<double> { /* ... */ };    // OK: specialization in enclosing namespace
template<> class N::Y<short> { /* ... */ };     // OK: specialization in enclosing namespace

template<class T> class X;                      // X is a class template
template<> class X<int>;

X<int>* p;                                      // OK: pointer to declared class X<int>
X<int> x;                                       // error: object of incomplete class X<int>

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v);

// explicit specialization for sort(Array<int>&)
// with deduced template-argument of type int
template<> void sort(Array<int>&);

template<class T> void f(T) { /* ... */ }
template<class T> inline T g(T) { /* ... */ }

template<> inline void f<>(int) { /* ... */ }   // OK: inline
template<> int g<>(int) { /* ... */ }           // OK: not inline

template<class T> struct A {
  void f(T);
  template<class X1> void g1(T, X1);
  template<class X2> void g2(T, X2);
  void h(T) { }
};

// specialization
template<> void A<int>::f(int);

// out of class member template definition
template<class T> template<class X1> void A<T>::g1(T, X1) { }

// member template specialization
template<> template<class X1> void A<int>::g1(int, X1);

// member template specialization
template<> template<>
  void A<int>::g1(int, char);           // X1 deduced as char
template<> template<>
  void A<int>::g2<char>(int, char);     // X2 specified as char

// member specialization even if defined in class definition
template<> void A<int>::h(int) { }

template<class T1> class A {
  template<class T2> class B {
    void mf();
  };
};
template<> template<> class A<int>::B<double>;
template<> template<> void A<char>::B<char>::mf();

template <class T1> class A {
  template<class T2> class B {
    template<class T3> void mf1(T3);
    void mf2();
  };
};
template <> template <class X>
  class A<int>::B {
      template <class T> void mf1(T);
  };
template <> template <> template<class T>
  void A<int>::B<double>::mf1(T t) { }
template <class Y> template <>
  void A<Y>::B<double>::mf2() { }       // ill-formed; B<double> is specialized but
                                        // its enclosing class template A is not

template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v);
void f(Array<dcomplex>& cv, Array<int>& ci) {
  sort<dcomplex>(cv);                   // sort(Array<dcomplex>&)
  sort<int>(ci);                        // sort(Array<int>&)
}

template<class U, class V> U convert(V v);

void g(double d) {
  int i = convert<int,double>(d);       // int convert(double)
  char c = convert<char,double>(d);     // char convert(double)
}

template<class X, class Y> X f(Y);
template<class X, class Y, class ... Z> X g(Y);
void h() {
  int i = f<int>(5.6);          // Y is deduced to be double
  int j = f(5.6);               // ill-formed: X cannot be deduced
  f<void>(f<int, bool>);        // Y for outer f deduced to be int (*)(bool)
  f<void>(f<int>);              // ill-formed: f<int> does not denote a single function template specialization
  int k = g<int>(5.6);          // Y is deduced to be double, Z is deduced to an empty sequence
  f<void>(g<int, bool>);        // Y for outer f is deduced to be int (*)(bool),
                                // Z is deduced to an empty sequence
}